Methods and systems that are able to quickly and accurately detect and, in certain cases, quantify a target analyte molecule or particle in a sample are the cornerstones of modern analytical measurements. Such systems and/or methods are employed in many areas such as academic and industrial research, environmental assessment, food safety, medical diagnosis, and detection of chemical, biological and/or radiological warfare agents. Advantageous features of such techniques may include specificity, speed, and sensitivity.
Most current techniques for quantifying low levels of analyte molecules in a sample use amplification procedures to increase the number of reporter molecules in order to be able to provide a measurable signal. For example, these known processes include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) for amplifying the signal in antibody-based assays, as well as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for amplifying target DNA strands in DNA-based assays. A more sensitive but indirect protein target amplification technique, called immunoPCR (see Sano, T.; Smith, C. L.; Cantor, C. R. Science 1992, 258, 120-122), makes use of oligonucleotide markers, which can subsequently be amplified using PCR and detected using a DNA hybridization assay (see Nam, J. M.; Thaxton, C. S.; Mirkin, C. A. Science 2003; 301, 1884-1886; Niemeyer, C. M.; Adler, M.; Pignataro, B.; Lenhert, S.; Gao, S.; Chi, L. F.; Fuchs, H.; Blohm, D. Nucleic Acids Research 1999, 27, 4553-4561; and Zhou, H.; Fisher, R. J.; Papas, T. S. Nucleic Acids Research 1993, 21, 6038-6039). While the immuno-PCR method permits ultra low-level protein detection, it is a complex assay procedure, and can be prone to false-positive signal generation (see Niemeyer, C. M.; Adler, M.; Wacker, R. Trends in Biotechnology 2005, 23, 208-216).
One disadvantage of typical known methods and/or systems for accurately detecting and, optionally, quantifying low concentrations of a particular analyte in solution is that they are based on ensemble responses in which many analyte molecules give rise to the measured signal. Most detection schemes require that a large number of molecules are present in the ensemble for the aggregate signal to be above the detection threshold. This disadvantage limits the sensitivity of most detection techniques and the dynamic range (i.e., the range of concentrations that can be detected). Many of the known methods and techniques are further plagued with problems of non-specific binding, which is the binding of analyte molecules/particles to be detected or reporter species non-specifically to sites other than those expected. This leads to an increase in the background signal, and therefore limits the lowest concentration that may be accurately or reproducibly detected.
Accordingly, improved methods for detecting and, optionally, quantifying analyte molecules or particles, especially in samples where such molecules or particles are present at very low concentration are needed.